Introduction:
In ancient Indian society, Buddhism came into existence due to certain economic, religious and social factors. Today, as a religion, Buddhism is one of the most followed, and as a philosophy, it is a considerably influential one across the world. However, Buddhism should not be considered mere philosophical school of thought. “Teachings of Buddha were neither metaphysical nor intellectual” (1). Buddha always emphasized daily ethical practices and moral conduct for a happy and better life. Yet, it is to say, there are so many unique philosophical doctrines that have been originated from and developed within Buddhism and Buddhist philosophical thoughts. Mainly, the Abhidhamma literature of Tripitaka generates Buddhist philosophical ideas and explains the profound teachings of the Buddha.
Studying the texts compiled and brought out by many prominent Buddhist scholars and philosophers it is noticeable that, for several centuries Buddhist philosophy has been developed in a way whereas inquiry, arguments, logic, debates, rational approach and free thoughts were widely encouraged. For its unbounded analytical approach towards explaining the universal phenomena, Buddhist philosophy has made a significant contribution towards the continual development of unique ideas, profound philosophical thoughts and arguments in several ways by adopting analytical and critical approaches.
In Buddhist philosophy, Tilakkana or the doctrine of three signs of phenomenal existence is one of the most known doctrine. In this writing, Buddhist doctrine of Tilakkana will be discussed in short.
Tilakkana of all the phenomenal existence:
Etymologically “tilakkana” means three marks or three signs. Pali root “ti” means three and “lakkana” represents characteristics or patterns. Buddhist philosophy considers that everything in this world can be explained and understood from the perspective of this doctrine of tilakkana. With deeper understanding and profound realization Buddha examined the nature of all the universal phenomena and their existence, the ultimate nature of the cosmic laws, beings and entities. Buddha examined that nothing in this world is permanent and eternal in nature; there is no such existence of things within the living beings or in any entities what we regard as self or soul. Therefore, the very impermanent nature of existence of living being is nothing but a cycle of sufferings.
In Buddhist philosophy the ultimate truth is that everything is impermanent. There is no permanent presence of any soul or self within any entity of this universe. As everything is momentary, not permanent and as there is no such existence of self or soul, according to Buddhist philosophy, being existent is nothing but Dukkha or suffering for the living beings. So, these are the three basic signs and the ultimate nature of all the phenomenal existence. All the phenomenal existence in this universe contains these three basic signs that indicate their ultimate disposition. These are-
- Anicca (impermanence)
- Suffering (dukkha)
- Anatta (non-self)
Anicca (Impermanence):
Everything in this universe is constantly changing. So, Buddhist philosophy considers all the universal phenomena as impermanent in their ultimate nature. In the verses 277 of Dhammapada, it was held by Buddha-
“Sabbe sankhara anicca” ti
SUTTA PITAKA, KHUDDAKA NIKAYA, DHAMMAPADA
yada pannayapassati
atha nibbindati dukkhe
esa maggo visuddhiya.
“All conditioned phenomena are impermanent”; when one sees this with Insight-wisdom, one becomes weary of dukkha (i.e., the khandhas). This is the Path to Purity. (2). “Impermanent, subject to change, are component things. Strive on with heedfulness!” (3) were the very last words of Buddha. When the Buddha embraced Parinibbana, Sakka, the chief of the deities, uttered the following:
Aniccaa vata sankhaaraa — uppaada vaya dhammino
Uppajjitvaa nirujjhanti — tesam vuupasamo sukho.
— Mahaa-Parinibbaana Sutta (DN 16)[1]
Impermanent are all component things,
They arise and cease, that is their nature:
They come into being and pass away,
Release from them is bliss supreme. (4)
Today, in most of the Theravada Buddhist societies, this Pali verse is to be recited by the Buddhist monks that remind us of the
impermanent nature of life during a death funeral ritual.
Dukkha (Sufferings):
Almost all of the existing religious tradition across the world come with an idea of happiness and heaven. In this regard, we see Buddhism propose totally a different idea. Buddha’s teachings starts with an explanation of Dukkha of living beings. Pali “dukhha” means sufferings. In his very first sermon Buddha explained four noble truth which starts with Dukkha.
“Idam kho pana bhikkhabe, dukkham ariya saccham: Jati pi dukkha, jara pi dukkha, (byadi pi dukkha,) maranam pi dukhham, sokaparidevadukkha- domanassupayasapidukkha, appiyehi sampayogo pi dukkho, piyehi vippayogo pi dukkho, yampiccham na labhati tam pi dukkham, sankhittena pancupadanakkhandha dukkha.
– Sutta Piṭaka , Saṃyutta Nikāya, Sacca Saṃyutta
“Now this, monks, is the noble truth of stress: Birth is stressful, aging is stressful, death is stressful; sorrow, lamentation, pain, distress, & despair are stressful; association with the unbeloved is stressful, separation from the loved is stressful, not getting what is wanted is stressful. In short, the five clinging-aggregates are stressful. (5)
In Mahasatipatthana sutta, Buddha again reminded his disciples to be mindful of these four noble truths and advise them to be aware of the nature of sufferings. According to both Dhammacakkapavattana Sutta and Mahasatipattana Sutta, there are eight types of sufferings. These are-
- Suffering because of birth
- Suffering because of old age
- Suffering because of sickness
- Suffering because of death
- Suffering because of separation from loved ones or things
- Suffering because of confrontation with an undesirable person or thing
- Suffering because of the denial of one’s desires
- Suffering because of the burning intensity of the five aggregates of an individual.
Buddha also explained that all the things arises co dependently. Ignorance is the primary root of all the sufferings for living beings. So he held, “Imasmim sati, idam hoti; imasmim asati idam na hoti” that means, “this being so, that is; this not being so, that is not” (6)
Verses 278 of Dhammapada says-
“Sabbe sankhara dukkha” ti
yada pannaya passati
atha nibbindati dukkhe
esa maggo visuddhiya.
“All conditioned phenomena are dukkha”; when one sees this with Insight-wisdom, one becomes weary of dukkha (i.e., the khandhas). This is the Path to Purity. (7)
Anatta (Non-self):
In Sanskrit, “Atma’ means soul or the idea of existing self. The term is used with utmost importance in many of Indian philosophical schools like Sankhya, Vedanta etc. Pali “Anatta” incorporates a negation to that very cpncept of “Atma” or soul. So, “Anatta” means “no atta” or no soul. Buddhist philosophy puts a view that, nothing in this world consist of such soul or self. Buddhism clearly rejected the idea of soul. In verses 279 of Dhammapada, it is said that-
“Sabbe sankhara anatta” ti
yada pannaya passati
atha nibbindati dukkhe
esa maggo visuddhiya.
“All phenomena (dhammas) are without self”; when one sees this with Insight-wisdom, one becomes weary of dukkha (i.e., the khandhas). This is the Path to Purity. (8)
All the material of this universe is composed of 4 major elements, these are- fire, liquid, air and soil or solidity. Likewise, if we closely observe our body we can see that our body is also composed of several parts and organ. All those parts and organ of human body also can be explained and distinguished separately from one to another. Finally we can see that in ultimate sense, everything is temporal, there is no permanent entity of anything.
Based on Buddha’s doctrine of non-permanence and non self, later, Nagarjuna, one of the most prominent Buddhist scholars of Nalanda Tradition developed the idea of emptiness which has been later widely known as the doctrine of emptiness. In his Mulmadhyamikakarika, he wrote
anirodham-anutpādam-anucchedam-aśāśvatam-anekārtham-ānārthamam-anāgamam-anirgamam
yah pratītyasamutpādam prapañcopaśamam śivam
There is no ceasing, no arising, no annihilation, no permanence, no coming, no going, no separateness and no sameness.
Buddha perfectly examined the ultimate nature of all the phenomenal existence. He clarified the nature of being and all the cosmic entities in this universe. He compared his ideas and findings with the existing theories and doctrines of that time, Brahmajala Sutta tells us about all the clarification brought out by Buddha in examining the concepts regarding self or soul, eternity, existence, being etc. If we bring some lines from Brahmajala Sutta,-
The self and the world are eternal, barren, steadfast as a mountain peak, standing firm like a pillar. And though these beings roam and wander (through the round of existence), pass away and re-arise, yet the self and the world remain the same just like eternity itself. What is the reason? Because I, by means of ardor, endeavor, application, diligence, and right reflection, attain to such a degree of mental concentration that with my mind thus concentrated, I recollect my numerous past lives in their modes and their details. For this reason I know this: the self and the world are eternal, barren, steadfast as a mountain peak, standing firm like a pillar. And though these beings roam and wander (through the round of existence), pass away and re-arise, yet the self and the world remain the same just like eternity itself.’ (9)
Conclusion:
Buddha gave his teachings to different stages of people in different ways and method. When we closely observe the teachings of Buddha we can see that most of the Buddha’s teachings are simple yet profound. The way Buddhism explains the cosmic laws and ultimate nature of all the phenomenal existence generates higher level of philosophical aspects. However, it will not be an erroneous view to put an opinion that, doctrine of tilakkana is, indeed one of the basement for understanding Buddhist philosophical thoughts. To understand the universe and the ultimate nature of all the phenomenal existence from the perspective of Buddhist philosophy one must to go through this fundamental Buddhist doctrine.
References:
- Bina Gupta, An introduction to Indian Philosophy: perspectives on reality, knowledge and freedom (NewYork: Routledge, 2012), p 80
- https://www.tipitaka.net/tipitaka/dhp/verseload.php?verse=277
- “Maha-parinibbana Sutta: Last Days of the Buddha” (DN 16), translated from the Pali by Sister Vajira & Francis Story. Access to Insight (BCBS Edition), 30 November 2013, http://www.accesstoinsight.org/tipitaka/dn/dn.16.1-6.vaji.html
- Ibid
- “Dhammacakkappavattana Sutta: Setting the Wheel of Dhamma in Motion” (SN 56.11), translated from the Pali by Thanissaro Bhikkhu. Access to Insight (BCBS Edition), 30 November,2013, http://www.accesstoinsight.org/tipitaka/sn/sn56/sn56.011.than.html .
- Maha Thera, Narada, The Buddha and His Teachings (Singapore: Singapore Buddhist Meditation Centre) p. 240.
- https://www.tipitaka.net/tipitaka/dhp/verseload.php?verse=277
- Ibid
- “Brahmajāla Sutta: The All-embracing Net of Views” (DN 1), translated from the Pali by Bhikkhu Bodhi. Access to Insight (BCBS Edition), 30 November 2013, http://www.accesstoinsight.org/tipitaka/dn/dn.01.0.bodh.html